As post-war prosperity spread across the Nation in the 1950s and 1960s, some members of the U.S. Congress found that the Appalachian region was not experiencing corresponding growth. In response, the Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1962 was passed, which made the Corps the lead agency on a multi-objective water resources study for the region. A second Appalachian Regional Development Act was passed in 1965. The study authorized by this legislation examined the likelihood that various types of water resources development projects, including flood control, hydropower, navigation, and mine drainage works, could stimulate economic development.

To carry out this study, the Corps established the Office of Appalachian Studies (OAS) within the Ohio River Division. The multi-objective planning approach utilized in the study considered regional economic development, national income gains through the use of underused resources, and environmental quality. It was the first Corps study that specifically addressed regional economic development, and study economists implemented new planning techniques to calculate costs and benefits. By the late 1960s, the OAS developed a 26-volume report of the study’s conclusions.

As the study finished its work, there was broad Federal and state support for maintaining the planning capabilities cultivated during the study and for continuing regional economic surveys. The desire to retain the skills and knowledge of OAS researchers and the calls for increased regional studies became factors in the founding of the Institute for Water Resources (IWR). Corps leadership felt that the OAS should be renamed and established as an independent entity. By 1969, this idea for a group of economists and planners working outside of the day-to-day operations of divisions, districts, and headquarters resulted in the opening of IWR.

In 1970, IWR’s Center for Advanced Planning began an examination of the Susquehanna River Basin Study being carried out by the Baltimore District. IWR researchers evaluated the public participation techniques that were applied in this multi-objective regional study. Supporting the Corps’ implementation of public participation was a central mission for IWR, and the Susquehanna effort provided researchers with a current case study of public involvement in a large regional setting.

After observing public meetings, interviewing residents, and analyzing surveys and questionnaires, IWR researchers concluded that the Corps’ public participation methods in the Susquehanna study were groundbreaking and effective means for incorporating public opinion into water resources planning. The IWR study found that public participation in the planning process was critical to developing an acceptable water resources project. By continually holding public events to solicit input, the Corps had made great strides in this critical aspect of project planning. These conclusions would guide subsequent IWR efforts to enhance public participation techniques in Corps field offices.

Learn More

• The Susquehanna Communication-Participation Study: Selected Approaches to Public Involvement in Water Resources Planning (1970) (pdf, 23.4 MB)

Through the 1970s IWR conducted a study of the McClellan-Kerr waterway system, which was a large-scale river basin development project on the Arkansas River system. The McClellan-Kerr project had taken nearly 20 years to complete, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) believed that its costs would outweigh its benefits. Consequently, OMB and Chief of Engineers Frederick Clarke requested that IWR evaluate the project’s regional economic impact and the accuracy of the original projections.

Led by economist George Antle, the IWR study used an integrated economic input model to evaluate the regional economy with and without the water resources development project. Researchers found the project resulted in about a 10% return on investment, which was higher than initial projections and well-justified in economic terms. The benefits realized, however, were vastly different from those envisioned by the project’s designers. The IWR study determined that benefits from recreation and hydropower were much higher than expected. Recreational use of the reservoir system and the energy crisis of the 1970s changed the economic benefits in a way the project’s earlier proponents could not have predicted.

This study helped to validate the efficacy of post-construction analyses for IWR. It examined a range of benefits over a large region, thereby helping IWR and the Corps to understand the actual effects of a large water resources development project. The McClellan-Kerr study also proved that the future defies prediction—a central challenge in any planning endeavor.

Controlling water in abundance—either through flood mitigation or building dams—often formed the focus of water resources management in the 20th century. But in the 1970s the Corps was faced with a different challenge: managing water shortages. A severe drought in the middle of the decade led the Corps and other Federal agencies to examine water conservation responses.

After directing a drought study task force for the White House and producing the Presidential Drought Appraisal Study in 1977, IWR began a water conservation study at the request of Corps leadership. Researchers asked what were different aspects of water conservation, and how could the cost savings of conservation be quantified. They developed an algorithm to test conservation projections for major U.S. cities. IWR personnel examined what water demands would be under various conservation alternatives and what economic savings could be expected.

During the water conservation study, IWR reached out to experts across the Corps by collaborating with members of the Office of the Chief of Engineers (OCE), the Waterways Experiment Station (WES), and the Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC). The study resulted in the development of a manual of water conservation planning procedures for the Civil Works directorate. The findings also influenced the Water Resources Council’s revised Principles & Standards in 1979, and it helped to refine IWR’s expertise in drought research and water demand management. This knowledge would be put to use in later projects, such as the development of the water usage computer model IWR-MAIN (available only from CDM) and the National Drought Study. 

Learn more:

• The Role of Conservation in Water Supply Planning (Report 79-2) (pdf, 8.1 MB)
• An Annotated Bibliography on Water Conservation (Report 79-3) (pdf, 10.0 MB)

The energy crisis of the 1970s prompted Americans to identify alternatives to fossil fuels. IWR contributed to this effort with the National Hydroelectric Power Resources Study (NHS), which was designed to help the U.S. meet the goals of energy efficiency and environmental quality. Authorized by the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1976, the NHS was led by IWR personnel with contributions from HEC and Corps field offices. Its mandate was to assess the potential for increased hydropower generation, analyze policymaking related to hydropower planning and determine the viability of developing new hydropower sites.

NHS researchers prepared an inventory of the Nation’s existing hydroelectric resources and identified potential for increased capacity. In 1983, the team published a 23-volume report that also included projections of hydropower demands through the year 2000 and the socioeconomic, environmental, institutional and policy issues surrounding hydropower development. The study identified nearly 2,000 potential hydropower sites in different regions of the United States and identified 261 Corps dams with the ability to produce additional hydroelectric power. The report suggested sites for further feasibility studies and acknowledged the importance of environmental sensitivity and public participation to the planning process.

The NHS fulfilled a contemporary need, and it highlighted IWR’s ability to conduct large-scale, national studies. The National Hydroelectric Power Resources Study was the first comprehensive assessment of existing and potential hydropower resources in the US. Its findings responded to the Nation’s requirement for greater information about renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that the flexibility and capability of the Institute were important elements for engaging with multiple agencies and interest groups and conducting nationwide assessments.

In the late 1970s, IWR began the National Waterways Study (NWS), a nationwide assessment of waterways that was authorized by the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1976. This large study was the first of its kind since 1908, and it was charged with examining the state of the waterway system, analyzing the current needs of the system and forecasting its future needs.

Arlene Dietz of IWR was named the study manager, which was significant at a time when few women managed large-scale water resources projects. The study produced a series of technical reports based on information from the Corps’ waterborne commerce statistics, the Water Resources Council’s National Water Assessment, and the Coast Guard’s accident and collision statistics. The Corps Office of History also developed a 10-volume appendix of navigation history as part of the study.

In 1981 the final draft of the study was released for internal review. It detailed the vital role of inland navigation to the national economy, but it also described issues related to ageing infrastructure and cumbersome project authorization processes. During the review period the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) directed the study team to modify the study’s parameters and focus on commercial waterway uses and cost-sharing. The final report was completed in 1983, but it was only distributed on request.

Despite the changes mandated in the study’s later years, the NWS greatly expanded available knowledge about the waterways of the United States. It profiled the history of the Nation’s ports and waterways, the contemporary importance of inland navigation and the environmental impacts of the waterway system.

Suburban growth in the latter part of the 20th century resulted in population increases near U.S. Army installations. Disputes developed over the noise from training activities; therefore, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) turned to IWR for assistance with public involvement activities.

Public involvement had been an area of focus for IWR since its founding. In the early 1980s, the Director of Engineering and Housing for TRADOC, who was aware of IWR’s expertise in public involvement, requested the development of a training program to help TRADOC work with nearby residents to resolve noise issues. Mark Dunning and Darrell Nolton of IWR led the program, named the Installation-Compatible Use Zone (ICUZ). This program involved teaching public involvement courses at TRADOC installations to facilitate dialogue between installation personnel and surrounding communities.

The ICUZ program resulted in successful public engagement for TRADOC, and in the late 1980s IWR was asked to apply the program to U.S. Army installations in Germany. IWR staff traveled overseas to teach public involvement courses, and they prepared a handbook for noise reduction and public engagement. Through this program, IWR helped the Army to solve complex challenges in numerous locations.

Learn More:

• IWR Report 91-R-5: Reducing Environmental Noise Impacts: A USAREUR Noise Management Program Handbook (pdf, 6.26 MB)

In the mid-1970s, two dam collapses within two years shook public confidence in the safety of dams nationwide. In response, the Corps began a large-scale dam inspection program that included non-Federal installations. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for the Army, Civil Works, requested that the Corps implement a risk analysis approach to the inspections, and IWR was called upon to adapt risk analysis procedures to dam safety.

IWR began the Risk Analysis Research Program in 1984. It was managed by Dr. Eugene Stakhiv of the IWR Policy Division and Dr. David Moser of the Research Division. The study produced a series of rules and regulations on flood frequency analysis, reliability analysis and risk analysis pertaining to dam safety. These findings were published as engineering manuals for Corps field personnel. The program, which ended in 1990, was one of the first instances where IWR research directly influenced engineering practices.

The study of risk analysis procedures didn't end with the Risk Analysis Research Program. This methodology has been applied to many areas of Corps planning into the 21st century, including navigation, hydrologic and environmental fields.

Learn more:

• Risk Analysis and Dam Safety Program Reports 

In 1988, a severe drought gripped much of the United States. This followed similar droughts in California and the southeastern U.S. in the mid 1980s. In response, Congress authorized the Corps to conduct a nationwide survey to find ways to improve water management during droughts. The result was the National Study of Water Management During Drought, known as the National Drought Study, with IWR as the lead agency.

The National Drought Study consisted of numerous field studies employing a collaborative approach between agencies and stakeholders. The hallmark of this approach was the use of shared vision models, which are collaboratively built computer simulation models. These models, developed by Dr. Richard Palmer of the University of Washington in the early 1990s, facilitate collaborative planning between stakeholders who develop and use the models to test different scenarios with water resources.

This collaborative planning approach was termed the DPS method. It was named for the Drought Preparedness Studies of the larger National Drought Study. The DPS method was based on the idea that stakeholders could work together to prepare for droughts, rather than only react to them. Field studies employing this method included the James River Drought Preparedness Study in Virginia, the Kanawha River Drought Preparedness Study in the mid-Atlantic states, and the Cedar and Green Rivers Drought Preparedness Study in Washington State.

In addition to the local and regional water management plans that were developed, the National Drought Study produced Managing Water for Drought (pdf, 1.57 MB), the Report to Congress (pdf, 1.20 MB), and the National Drought Atlas. These documents summarized the study’s methods and findings. Over time, the DPS method became Shared Vision Planning (SVP), which relies on the use of shared vision models and collaborative planning. This method has been applied to many water resources management issues and case studies, and it is the most important legacy of the National Drought Study.

Learn more:

• National Drought Study
• National Drought Study reports
• Shared Vision Planning

Cutting-edge software development has been a central part of the Hydrologic Engineering Center’s (HEC) mission since its founding in 1964. From the use of mainframes to PCs, HEC products represented the state of the art in hydrologic engineering and technical analysis software. As computer technology advanced, so too did HEC’s software engineering. By 1991, the Center began an ambitious, large-scale development of successor software products to be used by the Corps in the 21st century.

NexGen, the next generation of HEC software, implemented advances in computer science such as object-oriented programming language and graphical user interfaces. The results were a multi-user, multi-tasking network environment and integrated program packages for desktop workstations. The first package, River Analysis System (HEC-RAS), was released to the Corps and other government agencies in 1995. It was soon followed by the Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS), Flood Damage Analysis (HEC-FDA) and Reservoir Systems Analysis (HEC-RSS).

HEC continued to enhance the NexGen packages and develop new ones into the 21st century. By 2005 HEC had released the Reservoir Simulation Model (HEC-ResSim). In subsequent years the Center produced many other products including a Statistical Software Package (HEC-SSP), Ecosystem Functions Model (HEC-EFM) and Watershed Analysis Tool (HEC-WAT). The NexGen packages consistently added new capabilities, such as GIS links, while preserving and refining existing features. This program is an ongoing part of HEC’s work, and it demonstrates the Center’s leadership in the field of hydrologic engineering and technical assistance.

Learn More:

• Hydrologic Engineering Center

IWR conducted its first study related to climate change in 1977. At a time when global cooling was viewed as the most likely effect of a changing climate, IWR researchers studied 18 major river basins and the projected hydrologic consequences of temperature changes by + or – 2 degrees. Because of the Institute's experience with this study and other climate change policy studies during the 1980s, IWR was tasked by the Department of Defense (DoD) to review an EPA report on global warming in the early 1990s.

In response to the DoD request, IWR began the Economic Impacts of Climate Change research program in 1992. This study was led by Dr. Eugene Stakhiv, who had also participated in the 1977 study. The Economic Impacts of Climate Change program examined the effects of global warming scenarios on the reservoir operating systems of waterways throughout the United States. Researchers studied the projected impacts to the basins of the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, Rio Grande, Savannah and Green Rivers, as well as the Great Lakes. Ultimately, this study found that climate-related changes to reservoir operations would be manageable using existing adaptive management techniques.

With years of experience studying climate change, including during the earliest stages of the field’s development, Dr. Eugene Stakhiv was appointed to the United Nation's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1989. Dr. Stakhiv co-chaired the first IPCC Water Resource Group, served as lead author in the second and third IPCC reports, and acted as a reviewer on the fourth report. As a member of the IPCC, he shared in the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. IWR proudly congratulates Dr. Stakhiv for his achievements in climate change research and his continued dedication to water resources science and planning.

Learn more:

• Proceedings of the First National Conference on Climate Change and Water Resources Management (pdf, 25.5 MB)
• Responses to Climate Change Program

The concept of wetlands banking—essentially conserving or creating wetlands to offset losses due to development elsewhere—was first developed in the early 1980s. But it gained widespread Federal interest later in the decade during the presidency of George H.W. Bush, who endorsed the goal of “no net loss” of wetlands across the nation. With regulatory responsibility for wetlands, the Corps began studying ways to support economically and environmentally sustainable development, and consequently wetlands mitigation banking became a topic of focus.

The Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 1990 authorized a wetlands restoration and enhancement demonstration study, which became the National Wetlands Mitigation Banking Study. IWR was named to conduct the study. By 1994, the National Wetlands Mitigation Banking Study began releasing findings on the types of mitigation banks in existence, the concept of private markets for mitigation banking efforts, and the applicability of the banking concept to the Corps regulatory program. The White House Wetlands Working Group requested assistance from IWR in 1993 in drafting Federal mitigation banking guidance. In November 1995 the interagency group, co-chaired by IWR, finalized the Federal Mitigation Banking Guidance, which advocated market-based approaches between regulators and the private sector.

The National Wetlands Mitigation Banking Study encouraged the Corps to actively participate in the establishment and oversight of mitigation banks. The study results and guidance supported by the study helped foster the growth of mitigation banks. Study team members on the interagency group developing the Federal guidance received a Hammer Award in 1997 for its improvements to government operations.

Learn More:

• Wetlands Mitigation Banking Demonstration Study Documents 
• Wetland Mitigation Banking Concepts (pdf, 842KB)
• Federal Guidance for the Establishment, Use and Operation of Mitigation Banks (EPA)

In 1991, Congress appropriated funding for an OMB-approved study of the Nation’s infrastructure. IWR was named the coordinating agency of the Federal Infrastructure Strategy (FIS) program because of its involvement in previous studies relating to infrastructure. Other participants in the FIS included the Department of Transportation, the Department of Energy, a White House Working Group, the Urban Institute, the National Research Council, the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Advisory Council on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR).

Under the Clinton administration, the activities of the FIS accelerated. President Clinton issued Executive Order No. 12893, “Principles for Federal Infrastructure Investment,” on 26 January 1993, based on findings from the FIS. IWR co-hosted a meeting with President Clinton and ACIR, held in the Indian Treaty Room of the Old Executive Office building, on 1 December 1993 to discuss High Performance Public Works. IWR collaborated with OMB and other Federal agencies to host the National Conference on High Performance Infrastructure.

The FIS complemented the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993, which sought to improve government program results and capabilities. The FIS program focused on developing principles for better performance and efficiency in Federal infrastructure investments. The study advocated improved methods of technology transfer between levels of government, streamlined regulations and flexible financing processes as the means to improve the functioning of American infrastructure.

Learn More:

• Reports of the Federal Infrastructure Strategy 

In the 1950s, the International Joint Commission (IJC) developed a plan to regulate outflows from Lake Ontario through the St. Lawrence River. By the end of the 20th century, this plan had undergone many modifications and was deemed insufficient for addressing future water resources challenges. The IJC wanted to examine the effects of changing water levels and various forecasted climate scenarios upon regional stakeholders, and as a result in 1999 the IJC partnered with IWR to lead a multi-disciplinary, five-year study of the waterway system.

The Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River Study utilized an open public participatory process to develop options for Lake Ontario outflow regulation. Researchers comprising nine technical working groups examined the impacts of changing water levels upon shoreline communities, residential and industrial water users, navigation, hydropower and the environment. Study findings were translated into the planning process through the use of Shared Vision Planning (SVP), a collaborative planning method developed by IWR researchers. This study signified one of the first major applications of SVP in a complex decision-making context, and it proved that stakeholder participation and technical modeling could successfully develop acceptable outcomes.

IWR completed the study in 2006 by submitting its final report, which proposed three alternative outflow plans. The IJC is continuing to study the recommendations, and IWR has provided input as options are examined.

Learn More:

• Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River Study
• Shared Vision Planning

In the 1990s, performance-based budgeting and program assessment became increasingly important, particularly following the passage of the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993. To meet the Corps need for quality performance measures, the Navigation and Civil Works Decision Support Center (NDC) and its primary operational arm, the Waterborne Commerce Statistics Center (WCSC), initiated a linkage between NDC data and the Corps financial data system. This effort, called the Operations and Maintenance Business Information Link (OMBIL), was designed to assist the Corps in transitioning to business-oriented management.

To develop these performance measures, NDC began extracting expenditure data from the Corps Financial Management System (CEFMS) and combining it with business output data. NDC used this information to develop efficiency and effectiveness measurements for a range of Civil Works business lines. The measurements were posted online for internal use by the Corps and they were submitted to other authorities, including the Office of Management and Budget.

By 2008, NDC had refined OMBIL Plus, a centralized performance management information system comprising the navigation, hydropower, recreation, environmental compliance, environmental stewardship, water supply and regulatory business lines. This system continued to provide data in support of performance-based budgeting and Federal and public data requirements.

Learn More:

• Navigation and Civil Works Decision Support Center

By the early 21st century, IWR researchers believed that the state of the Corps’ planning practices required a thorough review. Therefore, in 2001 IWR created the Planning Improvement Task Force, a panel consisting of members of the Corps planning community who made recommendations on improving agency planning capabilities. The ideas advocated by this task force led to the development of the comprehensive Planning Excellence program.

In support of the Planning Excellence program, IWR has sponsored the Planning Associates (PA) program, which develops leaders who can conduct complex planning studies. IWR has managed the PA Kick-Off Session and the Washington Experience sessions in numerous years since 2002, and, in collaboration with Headquarters, IWR establishes selection criteria for candidates, delivers training sessions, and provides financial and logistical support. IWR has also developed and delivered seven core courses for entry-level planners and created the Planning Community of Practice (CoP) website.

To further the training opportunities available to planners, IWR has worked with the Universities Council on Water Resources (UCOWR) to establish the Advanced Degree Program in Integrated Water Resources Management. This graduate level program is available through a consortium of universities, and it addresses many challenges to the water resources planning and management community. Through these efforts, IWR has achieved the goals of the Planning Improvement Task Force to continually support broad-based training and cutting-edge capabilities for Corps planners.

Learn More:

• Planning Associates Program
• The Planning Community of Practice

Since its earliest days, IWR has recognized the value of intellectual exchanges between academia, private industry and government agencies. In the 21st century, the Institute sought to promote these exchanges on a regularized basis. In 2001, therefore, IWR established the Maass-White Visiting Scholar Program, which honors the founders of modern water resources practices, Drs. Arthur Maass and Gilbert F. White.

The first Maass-White fellow was Dr. Daniel (Pete) Loucks, a professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Cornell University. While at IWR Dr. Loucks worked on Great Lakes management issues, Everglades restoration, and helping to chart future directions for IWR and the Civil Works program. His tenure was followed by that of Dr. Peter Rogers, 2003 – 2004; Dr. Leonard Shabman, 2004 – 2006; Dr. Gerald E. Galloway Jr., 2006 – 2007; Dr. Yacov Haimes, 2007 – 2008; and Dr. Kenneth Strzepek, 2009 – 2010. These scholars focused on a multitude of topics including governance issues, water resources planning and policy analysis, risk analysis and climate change adaptation.

The Maass-White Visiting Scholar Program continues to support scholars whose work contributes to innovations in water resources policy research and analysis. Together with IWR’s additional visiting scholar programs, it maintains IWR’s commitment to ground-breaking research and advancing the science of water resources management.

Learn More:

• Maass-White Visiting Scholar Program 
• Visiting Scholar Reports 
• More about Drs. Maass and White 

The Sustainable Rivers Project represents an ongoing effort to reoperate Corps dams to achieve more ecologically sustainable flows, while maintaining or enhancing project benefits.

Learn More:

IWR-The Nature Conservancy Partnership

Sustainable Rivers Project

In the late 1990s, IWR began assisting in the drafting of the Civil Works (CW) Strategic Plan. This plan charted a course for the future direction of the Civil Works Program. IWR worked closely with Corps Headquarters during the multi-year development effort.

IWR personnel examined emerging water resources needs and challenges. In 2000, the Institute sponsored sixteen “Listening Sessions” around the United States to gather public input. IWR led the development of the plan, which was circulated publicly in draft form in 2002 and released in its final version in March 2004. The plan provided guidance for the Civil Works Program for a five-year period, from Fiscal Year 2004 to Fiscal Year 2009.

The Civil Works Strategic Plan aimed to focus the Civil Works Program on a “watershed” planning approach of integrated water resources management (IWRM). The goals laid out in the plan were based on a systems approach to IWRM. The plan recognized that while the traditional water resources missions of the Civil Works Program remain vital, contemporary challenges will require a collaborative, holistic approach to water resources issues. After the Strategic Plan was released, IWR continued to assist with its communication and implementation across the Corps.

After Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast in August 2005, the Corps immediately sought answers to questions about the New Orleans Hurricane Protection System. In response, the Corps established the Interagency Performance Evaluation Task Force (IPET). IWR was designated as co-leader of the interior flood control and consequences assessment sub-teams. Corps leadership also commissioned IWR to organize the Hurricane Protection Decision Chronology (HPDC). This study was designed to assemble and document the chronology of planning, economic, policy, legislative, institutional and financial decisions that influenced the hurricane protection system of Greater New Orleans.

IWR completed its portions of the IPET investigation in 2007, releasing “Volume VI: The Performance — Interior Drainage and Pumping” and “Volume VII: The Consequences.” In 2008 the HPDC investigation culminated in the publication of the final report, Decision-Making Chronology for the Lake Pontchartrain & Vicinity Hurricane Protection Project, and its source documents. The report provided an explanation of the decision-making related to protective structures, thereby complementing the engineering studies undertaken in the IPET work. These investigations helped the Corps to understand why the events related to Hurricane Katrina took place and, in turn, how to better prepare the Nation and its water resources infrastructure for catastrophic events.

Learn More

• Hurricane Protection Decision Chronology
• Final Report (Performance Evaluation of the New Orleans and Southeast Louisiana Hurricane Protection System) prepared by the Interagency Performance Evaluation Task Force